Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1144
https://doi.org/10.69639/arandu.v13i1.1968
Kinetic study and simulation of the biodiesel production
process using a mixture of palm and rapeseed oils
Estudio cinético y simulación del proceso de producción de biodiésel a partir de una
mezcla de aceites de palma y colza
Daniel Álvarez-Barrera
Universidad Politécnica de Santa Rosa Jáuregui
Querétaro, México
Jorge Bello Cantú
Facultad de ciencias Físico-Matemáticas, BUAP
Puebla, México
Artículo recibido: 10 diciembre 2025 -Aceptado para publicación: 18 enero 2026
Conflictos de intereses: Ninguno que declarar.
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on demonstrating the changes that occur in the transesterification reaction of
methanol and African palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) when mixed with rapeseed oil. All changes
were analyzed both at the kinetic level and in terms of the technical feasibility of large-scale
production in a basic medium, catalyzed by sodium hydroxide. The best reagent concentration
conditions were determined statistically in each case and then used to obtain the reaction kinetics
through chromatographic analysis at regular time intervals. The quality of the product obtained
was compared with the specifications of the ASTM D6751 standard, demonstrating compliance
with these standards. Once the necessary data had been obtained, the production process for this
biofuel was simulated using the SuperPro Designer® simulator. The results obtained show that
modifying the fatty acid content by adding rapeseed oil to palm oil favorably changes its
reaction kinetics, improving its energy produced to energy consumed ratio.
Keywords: biodiesel, kinetics, simulation, transesterification
RESUMEN
This study focuses on demonstrating the changes that occur in the transesterification reaction of
methanol and African palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) when mixed with rapeseed oil. All changes
were analyzed both at the kinetic level and in terms of the technical feasibility of large-scale
production in a basic medium, catalyzed by sodium hydroxide. The best reagent concentration
conditions were determined statistically in each case and then used to obtain the reaction kinetics
through chromatographic analysis at regular time intervals. The quality of the product obtained
was compared with the specifications of the ASTM D6751 standard, demonstrating compliance
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1145
with these standards. Once the necessary data had been obtained, the production process for this
biofuel was simulated using the SuperPro Designer® simulator. The results obtained show that
modifying the fatty acid content by adding rapeseed oil to palm oil favorably changes its
reaction kinetics, improving its energy produced to energy consumed ratio.
Keywords: biodiesel, kinetics, simulation, transesterification
Todo el contenido de la Revista Científica Internacional Arandu UTIC publicado en este sitio está disponible bajo
licencia Creative Commons Atribution 4.0 International.
with these standards. Once the necessary data had been obtained, the production process for this
biofuel was simulated using the SuperPro Designer® simulator. The results obtained show that
modifying the fatty acid content by adding rapeseed oil to palm oil favorably changes its
reaction kinetics, improving its energy produced to energy consumed ratio.
Keywords: biodiesel, kinetics, simulation, transesterification
Todo el contenido de la Revista Científica Internacional Arandu UTIC publicado en este sitio está disponible bajo
licencia Creative Commons Atribution 4.0 International.
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1146
INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel is currently understood to be a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters obtained from
oils and fats through chemical reaction processes, mainly transesterification with short-chain
alcohols such as methanol or ethanol (Avhad & Marchetti, 2015; Mandari & Devarai, 2022). Its
main boom has occurred in recent years thanks to its renewable and biodegradable nature and
the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions when used in place of fossil diesel (Kivevele et al.,
2024).
At the industrial level, the production process for this biofuel encompasses stages of raw
material pretreatment (oil extraction), catalytic reaction, biodiesel–glycerol phase separation,
product purification, and alcohol recovery, all of which significantly modify the energy and
economic efficiency of the process (Pasha et al., 2021; Trirahayu et al., 2022). The quality of the
oil used as raw material, particularly its free fatty acid and water content, is used as a guideline to
determine the viability of different catalytic route options, as well as the degree of complexity in
the separation processes used in the purification of the final product (Gebremariam & Marchetti,
2021).
Basic homogeneous catalysis, carried out using alkali hydroxides or alkoxides, is the most
widely used technology on an industrial scale due to the high reaction rates obtained, as well as
the high conversions achieved under moderate conditions (Avhad & Marchetti, 2015). However,
this catalysis option is overshadowed by its high sensitivity to free fatty acids, which leads to the
formation of soaps and hinders the separation of the final product (Mandari & Devarai, 2022).
On the other hand, homogeneous acid catalysis allows the processing of raw materials with
high free fatty acid content through esterification reactions, but requires longer reaction times and
more severe conditions, which leads to increased operating costs and corrosion problems
(Khodadadi et al., 2020).
Similarly, heterogeneous catalysts have been extensively studied as a sustainable
alternative, as they allow for easier separation, catalyst recirculation, and a reduction in effluents
(Hossain et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2022). Some metal oxides such as CaO, supported materials,
zeolites, and nanostructured catalysts have shown encouraging results, although they still face
challenges related to deactivation, leaching, and limitations in diffusion systems (Kibar et al.,
2023).
As an alternative to the above catalysts, the use of enzymes such as free or immobilized
lipases offers certain advantages, such as improved operating conditions and high selectivity,
making them an attractive alternative for waste oils. However, their high cost limits their
industrial application (Mandari & Devarai, 2022). Similarly, non-catalytic routes such as
transesterification under supercritical conditions have been studied for their tolerance to
impurities, but they require high pressures and temperatures, which reduces their economic
INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel is currently understood to be a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters obtained from
oils and fats through chemical reaction processes, mainly transesterification with short-chain
alcohols such as methanol or ethanol (Avhad & Marchetti, 2015; Mandari & Devarai, 2022). Its
main boom has occurred in recent years thanks to its renewable and biodegradable nature and
the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions when used in place of fossil diesel (Kivevele et al.,
2024).
At the industrial level, the production process for this biofuel encompasses stages of raw
material pretreatment (oil extraction), catalytic reaction, biodiesel–glycerol phase separation,
product purification, and alcohol recovery, all of which significantly modify the energy and
economic efficiency of the process (Pasha et al., 2021; Trirahayu et al., 2022). The quality of the
oil used as raw material, particularly its free fatty acid and water content, is used as a guideline to
determine the viability of different catalytic route options, as well as the degree of complexity in
the separation processes used in the purification of the final product (Gebremariam & Marchetti,
2021).
Basic homogeneous catalysis, carried out using alkali hydroxides or alkoxides, is the most
widely used technology on an industrial scale due to the high reaction rates obtained, as well as
the high conversions achieved under moderate conditions (Avhad & Marchetti, 2015). However,
this catalysis option is overshadowed by its high sensitivity to free fatty acids, which leads to the
formation of soaps and hinders the separation of the final product (Mandari & Devarai, 2022).
On the other hand, homogeneous acid catalysis allows the processing of raw materials with
high free fatty acid content through esterification reactions, but requires longer reaction times and
more severe conditions, which leads to increased operating costs and corrosion problems
(Khodadadi et al., 2020).
Similarly, heterogeneous catalysts have been extensively studied as a sustainable
alternative, as they allow for easier separation, catalyst recirculation, and a reduction in effluents
(Hossain et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2022). Some metal oxides such as CaO, supported materials,
zeolites, and nanostructured catalysts have shown encouraging results, although they still face
challenges related to deactivation, leaching, and limitations in diffusion systems (Kibar et al.,
2023).
As an alternative to the above catalysts, the use of enzymes such as free or immobilized
lipases offers certain advantages, such as improved operating conditions and high selectivity,
making them an attractive alternative for waste oils. However, their high cost limits their
industrial application (Mandari & Devarai, 2022). Similarly, non-catalytic routes such as
transesterification under supercritical conditions have been studied for their tolerance to
impurities, but they require high pressures and temperatures, which reduces their economic
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1147
viability (Gebremariam & Marchetti, 2021).
Computer simulation is a key tool in the comprehensive analysis of biodiesel production, as
it allows for the evaluation of mass flows obtained during the process, as well as its energy
assessment. It also allows for the optimization of operating conditions and the estimation of
technical, economic, and environmental variables (Pasha et al., 2021). Some previous studies
report stoichiometric and kinetic models used in simulators such as Aspen Plus and Aspen
HYSYS, which allow for the analysis of continuous and batch processes in different operating
scenarios (Liu et al., 2021; García et al., 2010).
The optimization of the different production processes for this biofuel usually focuses on
variables such as the alcohol- oil ratio, the catalytic load, the reaction temperature, and the
alcohol separation and recovery processes, using multi- objective approaches that
simultaneously evaluate economic and environmental criteria (Ahmed et al., 2022; Woinaroschy
et al., 2014).
The SuperPro Designer simulator has been widely used as a robust tool for industrial
process simulation and techno- economic analysis of biodiesel plants, especially when detailed
equipment sizing and rigorous cost estimation are required (Gebremariam & Marchetti, 2021;
Bansod et al., 2025). Its use allows for the evaluation of different process configurations, analysis
of their sensitivity in production costs with respect to important variables, and comparison of
alternative production and purification technologies (Kivevele et al., 2024).
In several studies, SuperPro Designer has been used as a complement to other simulators,
integrating advanced thermodynamic models and cost analyses to provide a comprehensive view
of the technical and economic performance of the production process (Trirahayu et al., 2022).
METHODOLOGY
Experimental
An experimental laboratory-scale study was conducted, complemented by process
simulation, to evaluate biodiesel production through transesterification and its technical and
energy feasibility. Refined vegetable oils were used as raw material and were previously
characterized for their fatty acid composition by gas chromatography.
Laboratory-scale transesterification reactions were done using 50 g of oil per batch.
Sodium hydroxide was used as a homogeneous catalyst to allow the oil’s reaction with methanol.
Catalyst and methanol-to-oil molar ratio were varied, while reaction time was established at 30
minutes. Once the reaction time was reached, the biodiesel-rich phase has been purified using
silica (Trysil®) to remove soaps and subsequently dried to determine yield.
Statistical analysis of the experimental results was performed using ANOVA to identify
the most influential operating parameters. Kinetic studies were then completed under optimal
conditions by measuring each component concentration at different reaction times. Quality
viability (Gebremariam & Marchetti, 2021).
Computer simulation is a key tool in the comprehensive analysis of biodiesel production, as
it allows for the evaluation of mass flows obtained during the process, as well as its energy
assessment. It also allows for the optimization of operating conditions and the estimation of
technical, economic, and environmental variables (Pasha et al., 2021). Some previous studies
report stoichiometric and kinetic models used in simulators such as Aspen Plus and Aspen
HYSYS, which allow for the analysis of continuous and batch processes in different operating
scenarios (Liu et al., 2021; García et al., 2010).
The optimization of the different production processes for this biofuel usually focuses on
variables such as the alcohol- oil ratio, the catalytic load, the reaction temperature, and the
alcohol separation and recovery processes, using multi- objective approaches that
simultaneously evaluate economic and environmental criteria (Ahmed et al., 2022; Woinaroschy
et al., 2014).
The SuperPro Designer simulator has been widely used as a robust tool for industrial
process simulation and techno- economic analysis of biodiesel plants, especially when detailed
equipment sizing and rigorous cost estimation are required (Gebremariam & Marchetti, 2021;
Bansod et al., 2025). Its use allows for the evaluation of different process configurations, analysis
of their sensitivity in production costs with respect to important variables, and comparison of
alternative production and purification technologies (Kivevele et al., 2024).
In several studies, SuperPro Designer has been used as a complement to other simulators,
integrating advanced thermodynamic models and cost analyses to provide a comprehensive view
of the technical and economic performance of the production process (Trirahayu et al., 2022).
METHODOLOGY
Experimental
An experimental laboratory-scale study was conducted, complemented by process
simulation, to evaluate biodiesel production through transesterification and its technical and
energy feasibility. Refined vegetable oils were used as raw material and were previously
characterized for their fatty acid composition by gas chromatography.
Laboratory-scale transesterification reactions were done using 50 g of oil per batch.
Sodium hydroxide was used as a homogeneous catalyst to allow the oil’s reaction with methanol.
Catalyst and methanol-to-oil molar ratio were varied, while reaction time was established at 30
minutes. Once the reaction time was reached, the biodiesel-rich phase has been purified using
silica (Trysil®) to remove soaps and subsequently dried to determine yield.
Statistical analysis of the experimental results was performed using ANOVA to identify
the most influential operating parameters. Kinetic studies were then completed under optimal
conditions by measuring each component concentration at different reaction times. Quality
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1148
parameters of the final product, including density, viscosity, oxidation stability, water content,
acidity, and iodine value, were performed following AOCS standard methods (Mehlenbacher,
1997).
Once kinetic data of the reactions were obtained, simulation of the biodiesel production
process was performed using the simulator Superpro Designer 8.5 © (SPD). Data used for
process simulations were taken from the experiments and located in each separation process.
Selection of the best separation conditions were achieved by sensitivity analysis. Finally, the
process was energetically evaluated by experimental calorimetric determination of the obtained
product and by simulations report. A global view of the followed method to achieve the results
of the simulations is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1
Process flow diagram for biodiesel production. Adapted from Alvarez&Bello (In press, 2026),
Iberociencias
parameters of the final product, including density, viscosity, oxidation stability, water content,
acidity, and iodine value, were performed following AOCS standard methods (Mehlenbacher,
1997).
Once kinetic data of the reactions were obtained, simulation of the biodiesel production
process was performed using the simulator Superpro Designer 8.5 © (SPD). Data used for
process simulations were taken from the experiments and located in each separation process.
Selection of the best separation conditions were achieved by sensitivity analysis. Finally, the
process was energetically evaluated by experimental calorimetric determination of the obtained
product and by simulations report. A global view of the followed method to achieve the results
of the simulations is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1
Process flow diagram for biodiesel production. Adapted from Alvarez&Bello (In press, 2026),
Iberociencias
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1149
RESULTS
Optimal transesterification conditions for refined African palm oil using sodium
hydroxide were reported by Alvarez et al (2021) at concentrations of 0.6% w/w and methanol-
to-oil molar ratio of 5:1. For the palm oil–rapeseed oil mixture, optimal conditions were reached
with 1.0% w/w of catalyst and an alcohol/oil molar ratio of 7 to 1. These results highlight the
influence of oils composition (Table 1) on reaction behavior.
Kinetic analysis shows that the addition of rapeseed oil increases reaction rates (Figura 2-
3), which can be assigned to the changes in fatty acid composition, specifically the higher oleic
and linoleic acids content. Saponification reactions were unavoidable; however, their impact was
reduced by the best conditions obtained during experimentation. The kinetic model showed
excellent agreement with experimental data (Table 2). In addition, the quality values of the
product satisfy the ASTM D6751 norm (Table 3).
Table 1
Fatty acids composition in the studied oils
Fatty acid African Palm Oil Rapeseed Oil
Lauric 0.44 0
Myrístic 2.33 1.8
Palmític 41.53 4.84
Stearic 4.74 0.93
Oleic 38.22 61.52
Linoleic 12.79 23.18
Linolenic 0.15 7.73
RESULTS
Optimal transesterification conditions for refined African palm oil using sodium
hydroxide were reported by Alvarez et al (2021) at concentrations of 0.6% w/w and methanol-
to-oil molar ratio of 5:1. For the palm oil–rapeseed oil mixture, optimal conditions were reached
with 1.0% w/w of catalyst and an alcohol/oil molar ratio of 7 to 1. These results highlight the
influence of oils composition (Table 1) on reaction behavior.
Kinetic analysis shows that the addition of rapeseed oil increases reaction rates (Figura 2-
3), which can be assigned to the changes in fatty acid composition, specifically the higher oleic
and linoleic acids content. Saponification reactions were unavoidable; however, their impact was
reduced by the best conditions obtained during experimentation. The kinetic model showed
excellent agreement with experimental data (Table 2). In addition, the quality values of the
product satisfy the ASTM D6751 norm (Table 3).
Table 1
Fatty acids composition in the studied oils
Fatty acid African Palm Oil Rapeseed Oil
Lauric 0.44 0
Myrístic 2.33 1.8
Palmític 41.53 4.84
Stearic 4.74 0.93
Oleic 38.22 61.52
Linoleic 12.79 23.18
Linolenic 0.15 7.73
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1150
Figure 2
Obtained concentrations for transesterification and saponification reactions of an African palm
oil-rapeseed oil mixture at 40oC
Figure 3
Obtained concentrations for transesterification and saponification reactions of an African palm
oil-rapeseed oil mixture at 50oC
Figure 2
Obtained concentrations for transesterification and saponification reactions of an African palm
oil-rapeseed oil mixture at 40oC
Figure 3
Obtained concentrations for transesterification and saponification reactions of an African palm
oil-rapeseed oil mixture at 50oC
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1151
Table 2
Activation energies and pre-exponential factors corresponding to the kinetic constants found for
transesterification of an african palm/rapeseed oils blend
Constant
Palm and rapeseed oils blend
Activation
energy [=]
KJ/mol
Pre exponential factor
K1 255.70 1.04 E 40
K2 212.30 9.65 E 31
K3 312.27 1.62 E 50
K4 150.40 6.61 E 21
Where:
K1 = Direct kinetic constant for reaction from vegetable oil to biodiesel. K2 = Reverse
kinetic constant for reaction from vegetable oil to biodiesel.
K3 = Direct kinetic constant for reaction from free fatty acids contained in the vegetable
oil to soaps. K4 = Reverse kinetic constant for reaction from free fatty acids contained in the
vegetable oil to soaps.
Table 3
Quality parameters of the produced biodiesel from African palm/rapeseed oils blend
Standard
ASTM D6751 Norm
Palm and rapeseed oils
mixture
Lower limit Upper limit
at 15 o C [=] Kg / m3 869.35 …. ….
at 40 o C [=] mm2 / s 4.6247 1.9 6
Oxidation Stability [=] h 5.38 3 ….
Water content [=] mg/Kg 236.8 …. 500
Acidity [=] mg KOH/g 0.15 …. 0.5
Iodine Value 76.99 …. ….
The flowsheets of biodiesel production process simulated for the analyzed blend are
shown in figures 6 and 7 and correspond to the extraction and refining of oils, and their
transformation to biodiesel, respectively.
Table 2
Activation energies and pre-exponential factors corresponding to the kinetic constants found for
transesterification of an african palm/rapeseed oils blend
Constant
Palm and rapeseed oils blend
Activation
energy [=]
KJ/mol
Pre exponential factor
K1 255.70 1.04 E 40
K2 212.30 9.65 E 31
K3 312.27 1.62 E 50
K4 150.40 6.61 E 21
Where:
K1 = Direct kinetic constant for reaction from vegetable oil to biodiesel. K2 = Reverse
kinetic constant for reaction from vegetable oil to biodiesel.
K3 = Direct kinetic constant for reaction from free fatty acids contained in the vegetable
oil to soaps. K4 = Reverse kinetic constant for reaction from free fatty acids contained in the
vegetable oil to soaps.
Table 3
Quality parameters of the produced biodiesel from African palm/rapeseed oils blend
Standard
ASTM D6751 Norm
Palm and rapeseed oils
mixture
Lower limit Upper limit
at 15 o C [=] Kg / m3 869.35 …. ….
at 40 o C [=] mm2 / s 4.6247 1.9 6
Oxidation Stability [=] h 5.38 3 ….
Water content [=] mg/Kg 236.8 …. 500
Acidity [=] mg KOH/g 0.15 …. 0.5
Iodine Value 76.99 …. ….
The flowsheets of biodiesel production process simulated for the analyzed blend are
shown in figures 6 and 7 and correspond to the extraction and refining of oils, and their
transformation to biodiesel, respectively.
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1152
Figure 4
Extraction and refining flow sheet for vegetable oils in the biodiesel production. Reproduced
from Álvarez et al. (In press, 2026), Iberociencias
Figure 5
Oils transesterification flowsheet and sub products separation for biodiesel production.
Reproduced from Álvarez et al. (In press, 2026), Iberociencias
Figure 4
Extraction and refining flow sheet for vegetable oils in the biodiesel production. Reproduced
from Álvarez et al. (In press, 2026), Iberociencias
Figure 5
Oils transesterification flowsheet and sub products separation for biodiesel production.
Reproduced from Álvarez et al. (In press, 2026), Iberociencias
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1153
Separation processes needing heat as distillation were designed using firstly shortcut
methods and then refined by rigorous methods with a R / Rmin = 1.25. Thermodynamical
properties of fatty acids and their methyl esters were taken from literature (Osmont & Catoire
(2007), Vatani & Merphooya (2007), Drapcho et al (2008)). Based on the presented diagrams,
energetic services evaluation for the analyzed process using this blend is shown in table 4.
Table 4
Energetic requirements of biodiesel production process using a palm oil/rapeseed oil mixture
Service Consumed energy in Kcal/h
African palm- rapeseed oils
mixture
Cooling and Heating 1,535,703.85
Equipment power 1,121,332.72
Total 2,657,036.57
Total energy was calculated based on the combustion heat, obtained from a calorimeter
and the biofuel stream of the simulated processes, getting a heat flow of 22,573,627.09 Kcal/h
for the analyzed blend, so the produced energy / consumed energy rate is 7.15. This can ensure
the energetic feasibility of the process and is higher than the reported rate (5.81) for African
palm alone (Alvarez & Bello. In press, 2026).
CONCLUSIONS
Results obtained from this research show that it is possible to produce biodiesel using a
mixture of palm and rapeseed oils, obtaining a positive energy balance, which guarantees its
technical feasibility of production.
Similarly, adding an extra oil to the process, such as rapeseed oil, has a positive effect on the
transesterification kinetics, allowing for shorter reaction times and thus a reduction in the energy
required for the process.
Separation processes needing heat as distillation were designed using firstly shortcut
methods and then refined by rigorous methods with a R / Rmin = 1.25. Thermodynamical
properties of fatty acids and their methyl esters were taken from literature (Osmont & Catoire
(2007), Vatani & Merphooya (2007), Drapcho et al (2008)). Based on the presented diagrams,
energetic services evaluation for the analyzed process using this blend is shown in table 4.
Table 4
Energetic requirements of biodiesel production process using a palm oil/rapeseed oil mixture
Service Consumed energy in Kcal/h
African palm- rapeseed oils
mixture
Cooling and Heating 1,535,703.85
Equipment power 1,121,332.72
Total 2,657,036.57
Total energy was calculated based on the combustion heat, obtained from a calorimeter
and the biofuel stream of the simulated processes, getting a heat flow of 22,573,627.09 Kcal/h
for the analyzed blend, so the produced energy / consumed energy rate is 7.15. This can ensure
the energetic feasibility of the process and is higher than the reported rate (5.81) for African
palm alone (Alvarez & Bello. In press, 2026).
CONCLUSIONS
Results obtained from this research show that it is possible to produce biodiesel using a
mixture of palm and rapeseed oils, obtaining a positive energy balance, which guarantees its
technical feasibility of production.
Similarly, adding an extra oil to the process, such as rapeseed oil, has a positive effect on the
transesterification kinetics, allowing for shorter reaction times and thus a reduction in the energy
required for the process.
Vol. 13/ Núm. 1 2026 pág. 1154
REFERENCES
1. Alvarez-Barrera, D., Bello Cantú, J., & Castro-Montoya, A. J. (in press). Analysis of
biodiesel production process from African palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) and sunflower oil:
Kinetics modelling and simulation. IberoCiencias.
2. Alvarez Barrera, D., Chávez Parga, M. del C., & Castro Montoya, A. J. (2021). Kinetic
study of methanolysis of African palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) for biodiesel production.
Latin American Journal of Development, 3(5), 3217–3229.
https://doi.org/10.46814/lajdv3n5-039
3. Ahmed, M., Abdullah, A., Laskar, A., Patle, D. S., Vo, D.-V. N., & Ahmad, Z. (2022).
Process simulation and stochastic multiobjective optimisation of homogeneously acid-
catalysed microalgal in-situ biodiesel production considering economic and
environmental criteria. Fuel. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.125165
4. Avhad, M. R., & Marchetti, J. M. (2015). A review on recent advancement in catalytic
materials for biodiesel production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50, 696–
718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.05.038
5. Bansod, Y., et al. (2025). Techno-economic assessment of biodiesel-derived crude glycerol
purification processes. RSC Sustainability, 3, 2605–2618.
6. Drapcho C, Nhuan N, Walker T (2008) Biofuels Engineering Process Technology.Mc.
Graw Hill, New York
7. Gebremariam, S. N., & Marchetti, J. M. (2021). Process simulation and techno-economic
performance evaluation of alternative technologies for biodiesel production from low
value non- edible oil. Biomass and Bioenergy, 150, 106102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106102
8. García, M., et al. (2010). Prediction of normalized biodiesel properties by simulation of
multiple feedstock blends. Bioresource Technology.
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Optimization of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using S–TiO₂/SBA-15
heterogeneous acid catalyst. Catalysts, 9(1), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9010067
10. Khodadadi, M. R., et al. (2020). Recent advances on the catalytic conversion of waste
cooking oil.
11. Kibar, H., et al. (2023). Review of catalysis in biodiesel production. ChemBioEng Reviews.
12. Kivevele, T. T., et al. (2024). Techno-economic evaluation of transesterification processes
for biodiesel production from low quality non-edible feedstocks: Process design and
simulation. Energy.
13. Liu, Y., Zhang, X., Yu, L., & Wang, S. (2021). Simulation of biodiesel production from
waste cooking oil in Aspen Plus: process design and techno-economic analysis.
REFERENCES
1. Alvarez-Barrera, D., Bello Cantú, J., & Castro-Montoya, A. J. (in press). Analysis of
biodiesel production process from African palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) and sunflower oil:
Kinetics modelling and simulation. IberoCiencias.
2. Alvarez Barrera, D., Chávez Parga, M. del C., & Castro Montoya, A. J. (2021). Kinetic
study of methanolysis of African palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) for biodiesel production.
Latin American Journal of Development, 3(5), 3217–3229.
https://doi.org/10.46814/lajdv3n5-039
3. Ahmed, M., Abdullah, A., Laskar, A., Patle, D. S., Vo, D.-V. N., & Ahmad, Z. (2022).
Process simulation and stochastic multiobjective optimisation of homogeneously acid-
catalysed microalgal in-situ biodiesel production considering economic and
environmental criteria. Fuel. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.125165
4. Avhad, M. R., & Marchetti, J. M. (2015). A review on recent advancement in catalytic
materials for biodiesel production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50, 696–
718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.05.038
5. Bansod, Y., et al. (2025). Techno-economic assessment of biodiesel-derived crude glycerol
purification processes. RSC Sustainability, 3, 2605–2618.
6. Drapcho C, Nhuan N, Walker T (2008) Biofuels Engineering Process Technology.Mc.
Graw Hill, New York
7. Gebremariam, S. N., & Marchetti, J. M. (2021). Process simulation and techno-economic
performance evaluation of alternative technologies for biodiesel production from low
value non- edible oil. Biomass and Bioenergy, 150, 106102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106102
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14. Mandari, V., & Devarai, S. K. (2022). Biodiesel production using homogeneous,
heterogeneous, and enzyme catalysts via transesterification and esterification reactions: A
critical review. Bioenergy Research, 15(2), 935–961.
15. Mehlenbacher V (1997) Enciclopedia de la química industrial 6. Análisis de grasas y
aceites. Urno, España.
16. Osmont A, Catoire L (2007) Thermochemistry of methyl and ethyl esters from vegetable
oils. Int J Chem Kinet 39: 481-491. Doi: 10.1002/kin.20264
17. Pasha, M. K., et al. (2021). An overview to process design, simulation and sustainability
evaluation of biodiesel production. Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts.
18. Trirahayu, D. A., Abidin, A. Z., Putra, R. P., Hidayat, A. S., Safitri, E., & Perdana, M. I.
(2022). Process simulation and design considerations for biodiesel production from
rubber seed oil. Fuels, 3(4), 563–579. https://doi.org/10.3390/fuels3040034
19. Vatani A, Merphooya M (2007) Prediction of Standard Enthalpy of Formation by a QSPR
Model. Int J Mol Sci 8: 407-432. Doi: 10.3390/i8050407
20. Woinaroschy, A., et al. (2014). Multiobjective optimal design for biodiesel sustainable
production.
21. Zhang, X., et al. (2022). A review on biodiesel production using various heterogeneous
nanocatalysts: Operation mechanisms and performances. Advances in Engineering
Software / (Elsevier, según indexación del artículo en ScienceDirect).