Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4464
https://doi.org/10.69639/arandu.v12i2.1242
English as a Foreign Language students' diagnosis of dyslexia in a
context of community service
Diagnóstico de dislexia en estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera en un contexto de
servicio comunitario
Estefany Maribel Castro Pucuji
estefany.castro2350@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8972-5241
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Ecuador-Pujilí
Jessica Dayanna Granja Rubio
jessica.granja7575@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-6530-3586
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Ecuador-Pujilí
Fanny Mercedes Abata Checa
fanny.abata@utc.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3112-5637
Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi
Ecuador-Pujilí
Artículo recibido: 10 mayo 2025 - Aceptado para publicación: 20 junio 2025
Conflictos de intereses: Ninguno que declarar.
ABSTRACT
Dyslexia is a learning disability that affects people of all ages, including children, teenagers, and adults,
and it impacts their reading and writing abilities. It can influence both syllabic and phonetic awareness.
Common traits include difficulties with fluency, reading, and spelling. The goal was to identify students
with dyslexia in a community service setting. A qualitative methodology with a descriptive approach
was used. The instrument employed was the PECFO test, which has two parts: syllable awareness and
phonetic awareness. This tool was used to diagnose students attending a center, aged between 4 and 7
years. The results showed that 7 students exhibited characteristics of dyslexia. They scored within the
10th percentile according to the table, indicating they have dyslexia. These students represented 21.88%
of the sample, with 15.63% being female and 6.25% male. The conclusion is that these students have
deficiencies in syllabic and phonetic awareness, which hinder their reading and writing skills, leading
to slower learning.
Keywords: dyslexia, phonetic awareness, syllabic awareness, reading, writing
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4465
RESUMEN
La dislexia es una discapacidad de aprendizaje que afecta a niños, adolescentes y adultos en la lectura
y la escritura. Puede afectar tanto la conciencia silábica como la fonética. Esta discapacidad se
caracteriza por problemas con la fluidez, la lectura y la ortografía. El objetivo de esta investigación fue
diagnosticar a estudiantes con dislexia en servicio comunitario. Se utilizó una metodología cualitativa
con un enfoque descriptivo. El instrumento utilizado fue la prueba PECFO, que consta de dos partes:
conciencia silábica y conciencia fonética. Este instrumento se utilizó para diagnosticar a los estudiantes
que asisten a un centro. Los estudiantes tenían entre 4 y 7 años de edad. Los resultados mostraron 7
estudiantes con características de dislexia. Los estudiantes obtuvieron una puntuación en el percentil 10
según la tabla. Estos estudiantes representaron el 21,88% de la muestra. El 15,63% fueron mujeres y el
6,25% fueron hombres. Se concluye que los estudiantes presentan deficiencias en la conciencia silábica
y fonética, lo que dificulta sus habilidades de lectura y escritura y resulta en un aprendizaje lento.
Palabras claves: dislexia, conciencia fonética, conciencia silábica, lectura, escritura
Todo el contenido de la Revista Científica Internacional Arandu UTIC publicado en este sitio está disponible bajo licencia
Creative Commons Atribution 4.0 International.
RESUMEN
La dislexia es una discapacidad de aprendizaje que afecta a niños, adolescentes y adultos en la lectura
y la escritura. Puede afectar tanto la conciencia silábica como la fonética. Esta discapacidad se
caracteriza por problemas con la fluidez, la lectura y la ortografía. El objetivo de esta investigación fue
diagnosticar a estudiantes con dislexia en servicio comunitario. Se utilizó una metodología cualitativa
con un enfoque descriptivo. El instrumento utilizado fue la prueba PECFO, que consta de dos partes:
conciencia silábica y conciencia fonética. Este instrumento se utilizó para diagnosticar a los estudiantes
que asisten a un centro. Los estudiantes tenían entre 4 y 7 años de edad. Los resultados mostraron 7
estudiantes con características de dislexia. Los estudiantes obtuvieron una puntuación en el percentil 10
según la tabla. Estos estudiantes representaron el 21,88% de la muestra. El 15,63% fueron mujeres y el
6,25% fueron hombres. Se concluye que los estudiantes presentan deficiencias en la conciencia silábica
y fonética, lo que dificulta sus habilidades de lectura y escritura y resulta en un aprendizaje lento.
Palabras claves: dislexia, conciencia fonética, conciencia silábica, lectura, escritura
Todo el contenido de la Revista Científica Internacional Arandu UTIC publicado en este sitio está disponible bajo licencia
Creative Commons Atribution 4.0 International.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4466
INTRODUCTION
Learning English enables individuals to discover new cultures, access new job opportunities,
and communicate with people worldwide (Putra et al., 2020). However, learning a new language has
been affected by neurological problems such as dyslexia. According to Guevara-Enríquez (2017),
students with learning difficulties have the right to learn a foreign language within their possibilities
with the support of teachers. According to D’Mello & Gabrieli (2018), the school-age population
affected worldwide with a dyslexic learning disability is between 5% and 17%. Then, identifying
dyslexic children helps prevent problems, whether academic or emotional. Then, teachers need to apply
appropriate strategies for teaching a foreign language and adapt them to classes. Dyslexia is a learning
disorder that affects the ability to read and write. Students often struggle with identifying words and
recognizing letter sounds to read. According to Carrillo et al. (2011), reading disorder was more
common in 2nd grade (15.2%) compared to 4th (9.3%) and 6th (10.9%). The reading challenges
detected are more common in basic decoding and spelling problems. Therefore, it is advisable to apply
a test to take preventive measures.
Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with lower-order processing issues or
phoneme-grapheme correspondence problems (Allam et al., 2015). One skill connected to reading
difficulties is phonological processing, which involves breaking down speech into units like
morphemes, syllables, or phonemes (Cuetos et al., 2017). This indicates that dyslexia is a learning
challenge marked by difficulties in word recognition and spelling due to a phonological deficit. Dyslexia
includes various components, but phonological awareness is among the most affected in children.
According to Manosalvas and Mishell (2021), phonological awareness develops between the ages of 4
and 8 years. This means neurocognitive issues can be identified early in children. With poor
phonological awareness, dyslexic students struggle with tasks such as counting syllables, deleting, or
replacing phonemes, leading to serious reading problems (Kuerten et al., 2020).
According to Monsrud and Andresen (2021), reading difficulties can have negative
consequences in students such as poor academic performance and comprehension problems that end in
a lack of motivation to learn and study the language. So, it is important to implement preventive
programs or pedagogical activities to reduce problems of lack recognition of sounds and syllabic
segmentation associated with dyslexia, especially in young children (Cuetos et al., 2017).
According to Ehri (2005), syllabic segmentation can help identify the syllables of a word so,
children can join the syllables and recognize the word when reading. However, not identifying syllables
could affect the child's reading speed and understanding. According to Anthony and Lonigan (2004),
children who do not have the skill of syllabic segmentation affect the decoding of words. In syllable
identification, Rasinski (2003) mentions that this helps children decode unknown words. Bioshop and
Snowling (2004) mention that having a deficit in syllable identification affects the combination of
sounds. This indicates that recognizing the syllables of a word when reading is necessary to manage.
INTRODUCTION
Learning English enables individuals to discover new cultures, access new job opportunities,
and communicate with people worldwide (Putra et al., 2020). However, learning a new language has
been affected by neurological problems such as dyslexia. According to Guevara-Enríquez (2017),
students with learning difficulties have the right to learn a foreign language within their possibilities
with the support of teachers. According to D’Mello & Gabrieli (2018), the school-age population
affected worldwide with a dyslexic learning disability is between 5% and 17%. Then, identifying
dyslexic children helps prevent problems, whether academic or emotional. Then, teachers need to apply
appropriate strategies for teaching a foreign language and adapt them to classes. Dyslexia is a learning
disorder that affects the ability to read and write. Students often struggle with identifying words and
recognizing letter sounds to read. According to Carrillo et al. (2011), reading disorder was more
common in 2nd grade (15.2%) compared to 4th (9.3%) and 6th (10.9%). The reading challenges
detected are more common in basic decoding and spelling problems. Therefore, it is advisable to apply
a test to take preventive measures.
Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with lower-order processing issues or
phoneme-grapheme correspondence problems (Allam et al., 2015). One skill connected to reading
difficulties is phonological processing, which involves breaking down speech into units like
morphemes, syllables, or phonemes (Cuetos et al., 2017). This indicates that dyslexia is a learning
challenge marked by difficulties in word recognition and spelling due to a phonological deficit. Dyslexia
includes various components, but phonological awareness is among the most affected in children.
According to Manosalvas and Mishell (2021), phonological awareness develops between the ages of 4
and 8 years. This means neurocognitive issues can be identified early in children. With poor
phonological awareness, dyslexic students struggle with tasks such as counting syllables, deleting, or
replacing phonemes, leading to serious reading problems (Kuerten et al., 2020).
According to Monsrud and Andresen (2021), reading difficulties can have negative
consequences in students such as poor academic performance and comprehension problems that end in
a lack of motivation to learn and study the language. So, it is important to implement preventive
programs or pedagogical activities to reduce problems of lack recognition of sounds and syllabic
segmentation associated with dyslexia, especially in young children (Cuetos et al., 2017).
According to Ehri (2005), syllabic segmentation can help identify the syllables of a word so,
children can join the syllables and recognize the word when reading. However, not identifying syllables
could affect the child's reading speed and understanding. According to Anthony and Lonigan (2004),
children who do not have the skill of syllabic segmentation affect the decoding of words. In syllable
identification, Rasinski (2003) mentions that this helps children decode unknown words. Bioshop and
Snowling (2004) mention that having a deficit in syllable identification affects the combination of
sounds. This indicates that recognizing the syllables of a word when reading is necessary to manage.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4467
Ziegler and Goswami (2005) suggest that learning to separate words into different fragments
helps children to pronounce the words. Troia (2010) suggests that being able to manipulate the final
syllable makes children successful in reading and writing. Torgesen (2000) points out that without good
syllable recognition, children cannot divide words into syllables. These authors emphasize the
importance of recognizing syllables and their order within a word. Moser et al. (2009) mention that
recognizing syllable placement is a fundamental process for producing and understanding language
effectively. Therefore, it is essential for developing fundamental language skills such as speaking,
writing, reading, and listening.
Molis et al. (2015) mention that the recognition of the initial syllable of a word contributes to
enhancing phonological awareness to understanding oral language. Goswami (2015) suggests that being
able to recognize the initial phoneme depends on the ability to identify and manipulate the sound
fragments of a word. Kilpatrick (2015) mentions that the inability to omit initial phonemes is very
common in children with dyslexia because it indicates the inability to divide words into phonemes and
delete them. Goswami (2018) mentions that the phonemic synthesis contributes to children dividing
words into sounds and understanding. Children with dyslexia often have difficulty processing sounds
effectively. It affects their ability to recognize words. According to Kilpatrick (2015), phonemic
synthesis is an indicator of successful reading as it demonstrates the ability to distinguish sounds and
combine them to form a word.
This research is relevant because it allows teachers to recognize characteristics of dyslexia I
children from 4 to 7 years old in the community context. It also provides the opportunity to understand
the individual needs and facilitates the implementation of pedagogical strategies to reduce problems
related to dyslexia, especially in the development of fundamental skills for learning such as reading and
writing in learning the English language It also helps teachers to promote an inclusive educational
approach that fosters equal opportunities, ensuring that all students can reach their full academic and
personal potential. So, the objective of this research is to identify EFL students with dyslexia in a context
of community service, and the research questions are: What are the strengths and weaknesses of
dyslexic students in phonological awareness and syllabic awareness? What is the percentage of children
with dyslexia between the ages of 4 and 7?
Dyslexic students with learning disabilities often have trouble memorizing words, doing
dialogues, or making grammatical errors in their writing. Tlustošová (2006) mentions that when a child
has a learning disability, they tend to have problems learning the alphabet as well as words that rhyme
or connecting letters with their sounds. It leads them to make many mistakes in writing and reading
since they have very messy spelling. People who have learning difficulties were discovered through
various questionnaires or tests conducted; these problems include dyslexia that is a serious problem in
people's learning development.
Therefore, it is important to develop appropriate learning strategies for students with dyslexia.
It is characterized by difficulties in recognizing words accurately and fluently, poor spelling and
Ziegler and Goswami (2005) suggest that learning to separate words into different fragments
helps children to pronounce the words. Troia (2010) suggests that being able to manipulate the final
syllable makes children successful in reading and writing. Torgesen (2000) points out that without good
syllable recognition, children cannot divide words into syllables. These authors emphasize the
importance of recognizing syllables and their order within a word. Moser et al. (2009) mention that
recognizing syllable placement is a fundamental process for producing and understanding language
effectively. Therefore, it is essential for developing fundamental language skills such as speaking,
writing, reading, and listening.
Molis et al. (2015) mention that the recognition of the initial syllable of a word contributes to
enhancing phonological awareness to understanding oral language. Goswami (2015) suggests that being
able to recognize the initial phoneme depends on the ability to identify and manipulate the sound
fragments of a word. Kilpatrick (2015) mentions that the inability to omit initial phonemes is very
common in children with dyslexia because it indicates the inability to divide words into phonemes and
delete them. Goswami (2018) mentions that the phonemic synthesis contributes to children dividing
words into sounds and understanding. Children with dyslexia often have difficulty processing sounds
effectively. It affects their ability to recognize words. According to Kilpatrick (2015), phonemic
synthesis is an indicator of successful reading as it demonstrates the ability to distinguish sounds and
combine them to form a word.
This research is relevant because it allows teachers to recognize characteristics of dyslexia I
children from 4 to 7 years old in the community context. It also provides the opportunity to understand
the individual needs and facilitates the implementation of pedagogical strategies to reduce problems
related to dyslexia, especially in the development of fundamental skills for learning such as reading and
writing in learning the English language It also helps teachers to promote an inclusive educational
approach that fosters equal opportunities, ensuring that all students can reach their full academic and
personal potential. So, the objective of this research is to identify EFL students with dyslexia in a context
of community service, and the research questions are: What are the strengths and weaknesses of
dyslexic students in phonological awareness and syllabic awareness? What is the percentage of children
with dyslexia between the ages of 4 and 7?
Dyslexic students with learning disabilities often have trouble memorizing words, doing
dialogues, or making grammatical errors in their writing. Tlustošová (2006) mentions that when a child
has a learning disability, they tend to have problems learning the alphabet as well as words that rhyme
or connecting letters with their sounds. It leads them to make many mistakes in writing and reading
since they have very messy spelling. People who have learning difficulties were discovered through
various questionnaires or tests conducted; these problems include dyslexia that is a serious problem in
people's learning development.
Therefore, it is important to develop appropriate learning strategies for students with dyslexia.
It is characterized by difficulties in recognizing words accurately and fluently, poor spelling and
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4468
decoding skills. People with dyslexia may also have difficulty with reading comprehension and may
experience challenges in related areas such as writing, spelling, and sometimes even math. According
to Tlustošová (2006) Some characteristics about dyslexia, problems identifying sounds within a word;
confusing letters such as b and d, read or write or “won” for “now”, a person sometimes reads or writes
incorrectly, has a slow, non-fluent, word-by-word reading, constantly losing place and skipping some
letters.
Dyslexia has different degrees of severity and can affect each person in different ways. There
are several types, such as Phonological Dyslexia (or Dysphonetic Dyslexia), a condition in which people
are unable to break down words into their basic sound units, known as phonemes. Shaywitz (2003)
states that phonological dyslexia are the most common because students have trouble breaking down
words and identifying phonemes. It affects the ability to process and decode the sounds that make up
words, which is why it is very important to read and understand.
Surface Dyslexia (or Dyseidetic Dyslexia) occurs when a person has trouble identifying
complete words at a glance. Although words can be broken down into sounds, also called phonemes,
and read phonetically, the person cannot read irregular words that do not follow a standard phonetic
rule. Marshall and Newcombe (1973) People with surface dyslexia have difficulty recognizing complete
words just by looking at them; they can read by spelling the letters; however, they have difficulty
reading irregular words, that is, those that do not follow typical phonetic patterns. In addition, there is
visual dyslexia, where people have difficulty interpreting and making sense of what they see with their
eyes.
This type of dyslexia affects the brain's ability to understand visual information, it is
characterized by having a difficulty following the order of words on a page, skipping lines or words,
making reading confusing and frustrating as well as having a confusion of letters that seem similar such
as "b" and "d" or "p" and "q", people with this type of dyslexia tend to write and read incorrectly due to
phone confusion. Stein (2014), visual dyslexia, also known as visual processing disorder, affects the
way the brain interprets visual information, this problem leads to people having incorrect reading and
writing.
Then, Curricular adaptation is necessary to help dyslexic children improve their learning
abilities in reading and writing. It can help identify and process sounds in words, provide reading
support, writing assistance, extra time, and personalized instruction to ensure that they receive an
equitable education. Flores (2022) Curricular adaptations were made as a solution to educational needs
focused on dyslexia. Showing the importance of the curriculum according to the level of each student.
The modifications made to the curriculum must be in response to the needs of each student so that it is
a support for teachers when teaching their classes, taking into account the weaknesses of each student.
By adapting the curriculum, schools manage to create a safe environment for all children with dyslexia
so that they can feel motivated and be very involved in the classroom, in addition to reaching students
with knowledge in a creative way, where children feel motivated to learn a second language.
decoding skills. People with dyslexia may also have difficulty with reading comprehension and may
experience challenges in related areas such as writing, spelling, and sometimes even math. According
to Tlustošová (2006) Some characteristics about dyslexia, problems identifying sounds within a word;
confusing letters such as b and d, read or write or “won” for “now”, a person sometimes reads or writes
incorrectly, has a slow, non-fluent, word-by-word reading, constantly losing place and skipping some
letters.
Dyslexia has different degrees of severity and can affect each person in different ways. There
are several types, such as Phonological Dyslexia (or Dysphonetic Dyslexia), a condition in which people
are unable to break down words into their basic sound units, known as phonemes. Shaywitz (2003)
states that phonological dyslexia are the most common because students have trouble breaking down
words and identifying phonemes. It affects the ability to process and decode the sounds that make up
words, which is why it is very important to read and understand.
Surface Dyslexia (or Dyseidetic Dyslexia) occurs when a person has trouble identifying
complete words at a glance. Although words can be broken down into sounds, also called phonemes,
and read phonetically, the person cannot read irregular words that do not follow a standard phonetic
rule. Marshall and Newcombe (1973) People with surface dyslexia have difficulty recognizing complete
words just by looking at them; they can read by spelling the letters; however, they have difficulty
reading irregular words, that is, those that do not follow typical phonetic patterns. In addition, there is
visual dyslexia, where people have difficulty interpreting and making sense of what they see with their
eyes.
This type of dyslexia affects the brain's ability to understand visual information, it is
characterized by having a difficulty following the order of words on a page, skipping lines or words,
making reading confusing and frustrating as well as having a confusion of letters that seem similar such
as "b" and "d" or "p" and "q", people with this type of dyslexia tend to write and read incorrectly due to
phone confusion. Stein (2014), visual dyslexia, also known as visual processing disorder, affects the
way the brain interprets visual information, this problem leads to people having incorrect reading and
writing.
Then, Curricular adaptation is necessary to help dyslexic children improve their learning
abilities in reading and writing. It can help identify and process sounds in words, provide reading
support, writing assistance, extra time, and personalized instruction to ensure that they receive an
equitable education. Flores (2022) Curricular adaptations were made as a solution to educational needs
focused on dyslexia. Showing the importance of the curriculum according to the level of each student.
The modifications made to the curriculum must be in response to the needs of each student so that it is
a support for teachers when teaching their classes, taking into account the weaknesses of each student.
By adapting the curriculum, schools manage to create a safe environment for all children with dyslexia
so that they can feel motivated and be very involved in the classroom, in addition to reaching students
with knowledge in a creative way, where children feel motivated to learn a second language.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4469
Karimupfumbi & Dwarika (2022) mention audiovisual, multisensory, phonological-phonemic,
interactive and game-based strategies that could be applied to students who present characteristics of
dyslexia. With a multisensory strategy, the authors refer to the combination of two senses, visual and
tactile. An example of this is that when teaching vocabulary, the teacher gives the students capital letters
made of foam, cardboard, wood, or a similar material that they can modify and with these letters they
form words. As students form the words, they are shown an image of the word they are forming.
The audiovisual strategy refers to applying activities to children such as word decomposition,
memory games, or word construction and at the same time having students read the words they were
learning. Another audiovisual strategy that is described is learning the sounds of syllables through
rhymes and rhythm. in this way, students can see the syllables, hear them, and memorize them more
easily since it helps students relate the letters or syllables with their corresponding sounds. And finally,
the phonological-phonemic strategy focuses more on teaching the alphabet using resources such as
phonetic charts or flashcards and audibly reproducing the sounds of each letter to develop the child's
reading and writing skills and address common challenges, such as differentiating between letters such
as "b" and "d."
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research Approach
This research used a qualitative method to identify English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
learners with dyslexia, as the results obtained in the PEFCO test are displayed descriptively, analyzing
the strengths and weaknesses of each participant. Creswell & Creswell (2017) highlight that qualitative
research is characterized by collecting descriptive data, inductive analysis of texts and images, and
objective and subjective interpretation of the results. The research contributed to describing the
characteristics for identifying students with dyslexia. It is based on a descriptive method (Siegmund &
Siedlecki, 2021). The purpose of this design is to describe individuals, events, or data being studied in
nature.
Participants
The participants in this study were 32 students from the Popular English Schools program.
There were 14 females and 18 males enrolled in general basic education from fourth to fifth grade. The
participants' ages ranged from 4 to 7 years and 11 months. This course is located in the Guaytacama
parish, El Calvario neighborhood. Informed consent was obtained from the participants' representative
Data collection
The researchers explained the terms of the research to each participant's representative and they
agreed to give their written consent. Each participant individually completed the assessment conducted
by the researchers. Each participant provided their responses orally, and the researchers recorded them
using a response matrix. The time to complete each instrument is 40 minutes per participant, which
means that responses can be obtained from 4 to 5 children per day during the allotted time in the
Karimupfumbi & Dwarika (2022) mention audiovisual, multisensory, phonological-phonemic,
interactive and game-based strategies that could be applied to students who present characteristics of
dyslexia. With a multisensory strategy, the authors refer to the combination of two senses, visual and
tactile. An example of this is that when teaching vocabulary, the teacher gives the students capital letters
made of foam, cardboard, wood, or a similar material that they can modify and with these letters they
form words. As students form the words, they are shown an image of the word they are forming.
The audiovisual strategy refers to applying activities to children such as word decomposition,
memory games, or word construction and at the same time having students read the words they were
learning. Another audiovisual strategy that is described is learning the sounds of syllables through
rhymes and rhythm. in this way, students can see the syllables, hear them, and memorize them more
easily since it helps students relate the letters or syllables with their corresponding sounds. And finally,
the phonological-phonemic strategy focuses more on teaching the alphabet using resources such as
phonetic charts or flashcards and audibly reproducing the sounds of each letter to develop the child's
reading and writing skills and address common challenges, such as differentiating between letters such
as "b" and "d."
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research Approach
This research used a qualitative method to identify English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
learners with dyslexia, as the results obtained in the PEFCO test are displayed descriptively, analyzing
the strengths and weaknesses of each participant. Creswell & Creswell (2017) highlight that qualitative
research is characterized by collecting descriptive data, inductive analysis of texts and images, and
objective and subjective interpretation of the results. The research contributed to describing the
characteristics for identifying students with dyslexia. It is based on a descriptive method (Siegmund &
Siedlecki, 2021). The purpose of this design is to describe individuals, events, or data being studied in
nature.
Participants
The participants in this study were 32 students from the Popular English Schools program.
There were 14 females and 18 males enrolled in general basic education from fourth to fifth grade. The
participants' ages ranged from 4 to 7 years and 11 months. This course is located in the Guaytacama
parish, El Calvario neighborhood. Informed consent was obtained from the participants' representative
Data collection
The researchers explained the terms of the research to each participant's representative and they
agreed to give their written consent. Each participant individually completed the assessment conducted
by the researchers. Each participant provided their responses orally, and the researchers recorded them
using a response matrix. The time to complete each instrument is 40 minutes per participant, which
means that responses can be obtained from 4 to 5 children per day during the allotted time in the
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4470
"English Folk Schools" course. Data from all children could be collected within 5 weeks, as the
instrument could only be administered on Saturdays when the children attended the aforementioned
course.
The instrument used was the Phonological Awareness Evaluation Test (PECFO) by its acronym
in Spanish. Varela & Barbieri (2013) developed an instrument designed to diagnose metalinguistic
ability in children between 4 and 7 years with 11 months. This test is divided into two types of
awareness: phonological awareness and syllabic awareness, that are in turn divided into categories. The
PEFCO instrument contains clear instructions in each category to be able to apply the test correctly, in
addition, the test has examples and images to guide the participant.
PECFO Description
This instrument is divided into two sections: the first section, that is Syllabic Awareness, has
six categories. Syllabic segmentation is the first category. This category assesses the child's ability to
divide words into syllables. For this category, the Pre-service teacher tells the child to look at the
drawing and explains: “It is an orange. The word orange can be divided into three parts: na-ran-ja.” The
Pre-service teacher explains to the child that he or she must put the number of lines according to the
number of syllables. After the example, the Pre-service teacher says “now you do it,” and continues
explaining in the same way.
The second category of Syllabic Awareness is Initial syllable identification. This category
assesses whether the child is able to recognize the first syllable of the word. For this category, the Pre-
service teacher tells the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: "Here are: lápiz, lana, luna,
nariz" while pointing to each picture. The Pre-service teacher has to say "The word lápiz begins with
the syllable la, show me another picture that begins with the syllable la." After the example, the Pre-
service teacher says "Let's continue with the next row of pictures”, and continues explaining in the same
way.
The third category of Syllabic Awareness is Final syllable identification. This category
assesses the child's ability to recognize the last syllable. For this category, the Pre-service teacher tells
the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here are: gato. zapato, gota, sapo” while pointing
to each picture. The Pre-service teacher has to say “The word gato ends with the syllable to, show me
another picture that ends with the syllable to.” After the example, the Pre-service teacher says “Let’s
continue with the next row of pictures,” and continues explaining in the same way.
The fourth category is Syllabic Awareness is Omission of initial syllable. This category assesses
the child's ability to recognize and eliminate the first syllable of words. For this category, the Pre-service
teacher asks the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here are: cortina, tina. If we remove
the first syllable of the word cortina, that is, cor, we are left with the word tina.” After the example, the
Pre-service teacher says “Now look at the next row of pictures” and continues explaining in the same
way.
"English Folk Schools" course. Data from all children could be collected within 5 weeks, as the
instrument could only be administered on Saturdays when the children attended the aforementioned
course.
The instrument used was the Phonological Awareness Evaluation Test (PECFO) by its acronym
in Spanish. Varela & Barbieri (2013) developed an instrument designed to diagnose metalinguistic
ability in children between 4 and 7 years with 11 months. This test is divided into two types of
awareness: phonological awareness and syllabic awareness, that are in turn divided into categories. The
PEFCO instrument contains clear instructions in each category to be able to apply the test correctly, in
addition, the test has examples and images to guide the participant.
PECFO Description
This instrument is divided into two sections: the first section, that is Syllabic Awareness, has
six categories. Syllabic segmentation is the first category. This category assesses the child's ability to
divide words into syllables. For this category, the Pre-service teacher tells the child to look at the
drawing and explains: “It is an orange. The word orange can be divided into three parts: na-ran-ja.” The
Pre-service teacher explains to the child that he or she must put the number of lines according to the
number of syllables. After the example, the Pre-service teacher says “now you do it,” and continues
explaining in the same way.
The second category of Syllabic Awareness is Initial syllable identification. This category
assesses whether the child is able to recognize the first syllable of the word. For this category, the Pre-
service teacher tells the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: "Here are: lápiz, lana, luna,
nariz" while pointing to each picture. The Pre-service teacher has to say "The word lápiz begins with
the syllable la, show me another picture that begins with the syllable la." After the example, the Pre-
service teacher says "Let's continue with the next row of pictures”, and continues explaining in the same
way.
The third category of Syllabic Awareness is Final syllable identification. This category
assesses the child's ability to recognize the last syllable. For this category, the Pre-service teacher tells
the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here are: gato. zapato, gota, sapo” while pointing
to each picture. The Pre-service teacher has to say “The word gato ends with the syllable to, show me
another picture that ends with the syllable to.” After the example, the Pre-service teacher says “Let’s
continue with the next row of pictures,” and continues explaining in the same way.
The fourth category is Syllabic Awareness is Omission of initial syllable. This category assesses
the child's ability to recognize and eliminate the first syllable of words. For this category, the Pre-service
teacher asks the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here are: cortina, tina. If we remove
the first syllable of the word cortina, that is, cor, we are left with the word tina.” After the example, the
Pre-service teacher says “Now look at the next row of pictures” and continues explaining in the same
way.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4471
The fifth category of Syllabic Awareness is Final syllable omission. This category assesses the
child's ability to recognize and delete the last syllable of a word. For this category, the teacher asks the
child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: camarón, cama. If we remove the last
syllable of the word camarón, that is, rón, we are left with the word cama.” After the example, the
teacher says, “Now look at the next row of pictures” and continues explaining in the same way.
The final category of Syllabic Awareness is Syllabic inversion. This test evaluates the child's
ability to identify the syllables that make up the word. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks
the child to look at the row of pictures saying “Here are: silla, sopa, llave” pointing to each picture and
explains: “Listen carefully because I am going to say one of the words that are drawn here backwards
and you have to guess what word it is and point out its picture” and continues saying “For example, I
say llasi, show me which of the words drawn here are said backwards.” After the example, the Pre-
service teacher must continue repeating the same instructions.
The second section of this instrument is Phonemic Awareness, it contains four categories. Each
category contains five items. Identification of the initial phoneme is the first category. This category
assesses the child's ability to recognize the initial phoneme of the word. For this category, the Pre-
service teacher asks the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: pato, casa,
boca, pelo” while pointing to each picture. The Pre-service teacher has to say “The word pato starts
with the sound p”. (The sound must be made, not the name of the letter) “Show me another picture that
starts with the sound P” “Now look at this row”, and continue explaining in the same way.
The second category is Final phoneme identification. This category assesses whether the child
is able to recognize the last phoneme of words. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks the child
to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: sol, mar, sal, pan” while pointing to each
picture. The teacher has to say “The word sol ends with the sound L" (He tells the child the sound of
the letter, not the name). "Show him what other picture ends its name with the sound L". After the
example, the Pre-service teacher says “Now you, look at this row” and continues explaining in the same
way.
The third category is Omission of the initial phoneme. It is assessed whether the child can
identify the initial phoneme of the word and eliminate it. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks
the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here are: barco, arco, almohada, oso. If we take
away the “b” sound from the word barco, it becomes the word arco.” After the example, the Pre-service
teacher says: “Now look at the next row of pictures” and continues explaining in the same way.
The final category is Phonemic synthesis. This category assesses the child's ability to identify
the sounds of the letters that make up the word. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks the child
to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: loro, toro, lobo. The word lobo has four
sounds l-o-b-o. I am going to tell you only the sounds of the word and you have to show the picture of
the word that I told you.” After the example, the Pre-service teacher says: “Now look at the next row of
pictures” and continues explaining in the same way.
The fifth category of Syllabic Awareness is Final syllable omission. This category assesses the
child's ability to recognize and delete the last syllable of a word. For this category, the teacher asks the
child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: camarón, cama. If we remove the last
syllable of the word camarón, that is, rón, we are left with the word cama.” After the example, the
teacher says, “Now look at the next row of pictures” and continues explaining in the same way.
The final category of Syllabic Awareness is Syllabic inversion. This test evaluates the child's
ability to identify the syllables that make up the word. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks
the child to look at the row of pictures saying “Here are: silla, sopa, llave” pointing to each picture and
explains: “Listen carefully because I am going to say one of the words that are drawn here backwards
and you have to guess what word it is and point out its picture” and continues saying “For example, I
say llasi, show me which of the words drawn here are said backwards.” After the example, the Pre-
service teacher must continue repeating the same instructions.
The second section of this instrument is Phonemic Awareness, it contains four categories. Each
category contains five items. Identification of the initial phoneme is the first category. This category
assesses the child's ability to recognize the initial phoneme of the word. For this category, the Pre-
service teacher asks the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: pato, casa,
boca, pelo” while pointing to each picture. The Pre-service teacher has to say “The word pato starts
with the sound p”. (The sound must be made, not the name of the letter) “Show me another picture that
starts with the sound P” “Now look at this row”, and continue explaining in the same way.
The second category is Final phoneme identification. This category assesses whether the child
is able to recognize the last phoneme of words. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks the child
to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: sol, mar, sal, pan” while pointing to each
picture. The teacher has to say “The word sol ends with the sound L" (He tells the child the sound of
the letter, not the name). "Show him what other picture ends its name with the sound L". After the
example, the Pre-service teacher says “Now you, look at this row” and continues explaining in the same
way.
The third category is Omission of the initial phoneme. It is assessed whether the child can
identify the initial phoneme of the word and eliminate it. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks
the child to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here are: barco, arco, almohada, oso. If we take
away the “b” sound from the word barco, it becomes the word arco.” After the example, the Pre-service
teacher says: “Now look at the next row of pictures” and continues explaining in the same way.
The final category is Phonemic synthesis. This category assesses the child's ability to identify
the sounds of the letters that make up the word. For this category, the Pre-service teacher asks the child
to look at the row of pictures and explains: “Here they are: loro, toro, lobo. The word lobo has four
sounds l-o-b-o. I am going to tell you only the sounds of the word and you have to show the picture of
the word that I told you.” After the example, the Pre-service teacher says: “Now look at the next row of
pictures” and continues explaining in the same way.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4472
Adaptation of the test to Latin America
Manosalvas & Mishell (2021) argue that there is still no instrument in Ecuador to diagnose
metaphonological ability, which is why they decided to adapt the PECFO test, which is of Chilean
origin, to be able to be applied in an Ecuadorian context.
For this reason, the instrument of this research is the adaptation developed by Manosalvas &
Mishell (2021). However, the images of the instrument were modified and validated by Mercedes
Abata, Mg, and Paulina Arias, PhD.
The process began with each participant individually completing the assessment conducted by
the researchers. The students received individual guidance. Each participant provided their responses
orally, and the researchers recorded them using a response matrix. Each instrument took 40 minutes to
complete, meaning responses could be obtained from four to five children per day during the allotted
time of the English Popular Schools course.
The PEFCO instrument contains a table for calculating results and defining whether participants
have dyslexia.
• Normal, between the 25th and 75th percentiles or higher.
• At risk, between the 25th and 10th percentiles.
• Deficit, below the 10th percentile.
Table 1
Percentiles to identify Dyslexic students
Percentiles Percentil
10
Percentil
25
Percentil
50
Percentil
75
Percentil
90
4 a 4 años 11 meses 12 ptos. 16 ptos. 22 ptos. 26 ptos. 32 ptos.
5 a 5 años 11 meses 20 ptos. 25 ptos. 29 ptos. 33 ptos. 39 ptos.
6 a 6 años 11 meses 27 ptos. 34 ptos. 39 ptos. 41 ptos. 47 ptos.
7 a 7 años 11 meses 35 ptos. 41 ptos. 44 ptos. 47 ptos. 49 ptos.
Note : Varela. V. et. al. (S.A) PECFO Prueba de Evaluación de Conciencia Fonológica. EDICIONES UC.
https://es.scribd.com/document/333009340/Manual-Aplicacion-Pecfo-pdf
Adaptation of the test to Latin America
Manosalvas & Mishell (2021) argue that there is still no instrument in Ecuador to diagnose
metaphonological ability, which is why they decided to adapt the PECFO test, which is of Chilean
origin, to be able to be applied in an Ecuadorian context.
For this reason, the instrument of this research is the adaptation developed by Manosalvas &
Mishell (2021). However, the images of the instrument were modified and validated by Mercedes
Abata, Mg, and Paulina Arias, PhD.
The process began with each participant individually completing the assessment conducted by
the researchers. The students received individual guidance. Each participant provided their responses
orally, and the researchers recorded them using a response matrix. Each instrument took 40 minutes to
complete, meaning responses could be obtained from four to five children per day during the allotted
time of the English Popular Schools course.
The PEFCO instrument contains a table for calculating results and defining whether participants
have dyslexia.
• Normal, between the 25th and 75th percentiles or higher.
• At risk, between the 25th and 10th percentiles.
• Deficit, below the 10th percentile.
Table 1
Percentiles to identify Dyslexic students
Percentiles Percentil
10
Percentil
25
Percentil
50
Percentil
75
Percentil
90
4 a 4 años 11 meses 12 ptos. 16 ptos. 22 ptos. 26 ptos. 32 ptos.
5 a 5 años 11 meses 20 ptos. 25 ptos. 29 ptos. 33 ptos. 39 ptos.
6 a 6 años 11 meses 27 ptos. 34 ptos. 39 ptos. 41 ptos. 47 ptos.
7 a 7 años 11 meses 35 ptos. 41 ptos. 44 ptos. 47 ptos. 49 ptos.
Note : Varela. V. et. al. (S.A) PECFO Prueba de Evaluación de Conciencia Fonológica. EDICIONES UC.
https://es.scribd.com/document/333009340/Manual-Aplicacion-Pecfo-pdf
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4473
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Tabla 2
Participants with dyslexic characteristics
Syllabic awareness Phonemic
awareness
Total
Code Age
Syllabic segmentation
Syllable identification
Final syllable identification
Omission of initial syllable
Omission of final syllable
Syllabic inversion
Initial phoneme
identification
Final phoneme
identification
Omission of initial phoneme
Phonemic synthesis
Total Percentiles %
S- 1 7 5 0 0 2 1 1 3 2 0 2 16 10 15,625
S - 2 6 4 2 1 1 5 1 3 2 1 3 23 10
S - 3 7 5 4 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 5 34 10
S - 4 5 1 1 1 2 0 2 1 1 2 2 13 10
S - 5 6 0 1 5 1 3 3 1 3 1 4 22 10
S - 6 7 5 3 0 0 2 1 2 3 2 5 23 10 6,25
S - 7 7 3 4 0 0 1 1 1 1 3 1 15 10
Total 21,88
The results in Table 1 show that 7 students exhibit characteristics of dyslexia. The students
scored in the 10th percentile according to the table used to evaluate the results, which indicates that if
a participant scores in the 10th percentile or lower, they have dyslexia. These students represent 21.88%
of the student body. Of this group of students, 15.63% are female and 6.25% are male. Of the students
with dyslexia, 4 participants are 7 years old, 3 are 6 years old, and one participant is 5 years old.
The results answer the question: What are the strengths and weaknesses of dyslexic students in
phonological awareness and syllabic awareness?
Students presented strengths and weaknesses in each part of the PEFCO test. The students
obtained these strengths because at the beginning of each question they were given an example of how
to carry out the activity and give their answer. Their strengths lie in the fact that four participants (S-1,
S-2, S-3, S-6) obtained an adequate score in syllable segmentation. Syllable segmentation refers to the
ability to separate syllables to begin reading and writing in any language.
Ehri (2005) states that syllable segmentation plays an important role in the development of
reading, contributing to good phonological awareness. In the identification of the first syllable, two
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Tabla 2
Participants with dyslexic characteristics
Syllabic awareness Phonemic
awareness
Total
Code Age
Syllabic segmentation
Syllable identification
Final syllable identification
Omission of initial syllable
Omission of final syllable
Syllabic inversion
Initial phoneme
identification
Final phoneme
identification
Omission of initial phoneme
Phonemic synthesis
Total Percentiles %
S- 1 7 5 0 0 2 1 1 3 2 0 2 16 10 15,625
S - 2 6 4 2 1 1 5 1 3 2 1 3 23 10
S - 3 7 5 4 3 3 4 3 2 2 3 5 34 10
S - 4 5 1 1 1 2 0 2 1 1 2 2 13 10
S - 5 6 0 1 5 1 3 3 1 3 1 4 22 10
S - 6 7 5 3 0 0 2 1 2 3 2 5 23 10 6,25
S - 7 7 3 4 0 0 1 1 1 1 3 1 15 10
Total 21,88
The results in Table 1 show that 7 students exhibit characteristics of dyslexia. The students
scored in the 10th percentile according to the table used to evaluate the results, which indicates that if
a participant scores in the 10th percentile or lower, they have dyslexia. These students represent 21.88%
of the student body. Of this group of students, 15.63% are female and 6.25% are male. Of the students
with dyslexia, 4 participants are 7 years old, 3 are 6 years old, and one participant is 5 years old.
The results answer the question: What are the strengths and weaknesses of dyslexic students in
phonological awareness and syllabic awareness?
Students presented strengths and weaknesses in each part of the PEFCO test. The students
obtained these strengths because at the beginning of each question they were given an example of how
to carry out the activity and give their answer. Their strengths lie in the fact that four participants (S-1,
S-2, S-3, S-6) obtained an adequate score in syllable segmentation. Syllable segmentation refers to the
ability to separate syllables to begin reading and writing in any language.
Ehri (2005) states that syllable segmentation plays an important role in the development of
reading, contributing to good phonological awareness. In the identification of the first syllable, two
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4474
students (S-3 and S-7) obtained a 4. This indicates a good mastery of syllable identification. This score
is normal and important for a child to read and write correctly. According to Rasinski (2003), syllable
identification helps children decode words well. In the final syllable identification category, one
participant (S-5) scored correctly. Vazeux et al. (2020) Syllables play an important role in the reading
process, as readers activate phonological syllables. Recognizing initial, medial, and final syllables is
important for successful reading and writing. In the final syllable omission category, two participants
(S-2 and S-3) scored adequately. This represents a strength in reading. Troia (2010) states that
phonological manipulations, such as final syllable omission, are important for success in reading and
writing.
The students also showed deficiencies in each part of the test, such as syllable segmentation,
first syllable identification, last syllable identification, initial syllable omission, final syllable omission,
syllable reversal, initial phoneme identification, final phoneme identification, initial phoneme omission,
and phoneme synthesis. The students had deficiencies in this part because they were not pre-tested for
dyslexia. In syllable segmentation, three participants (S-4, S-5, and S-7) scored between 0 and 3.
Syllable segmentation is the ability to separate syllables. Anthony and Lonigan (2004) reported that a
deficiency in syllable segmentation made word decoding difficult and impaired spelling and reading
development. In initial syllable identification, four participants (S-1, S-2, S-4, S-5, and S-6) scored low.
This impairs their reading skills. Bishop and Snowling (2004) stated that poor syllable identification
skills are often due to phonological processing.
This makes it difficult to blend and segment sounds. The lack of proper sound blending leads
to reading difficulties. In the final syllable identification, six participants (S-1, S-2, S-3, S-4, S-6, S-7)
scored very low. This can make word segmentation difficult. Torgesen (2000) observed that children
are unable to decode unfamiliar words because they do not recognize the first syllable. This leads to
slower development of reading and writing.
In the omission of the initial syllable, all participants obtained a very low score, which hinders
their success in reading and writing. Lane and Pullen (2011) Children with problems deleting initial
syllables tend to have difficulties manipulating and segmenting the sounds in words, which makes their
reading and writing difficult. In the omission of the final syllable. 5 participants (S-1, S-4, S-5, S.6, S7)
obtained a low score.
The difficulty in identifying the last syllable affects the child's pronunciation, reading and
writing. Preston & Edwards (2010) Having a lower phonological awareness is associated with having
a smaller receptive vocabulary and with errors in reading and writing.In syllable inversion, all
participants showed a low level, with a score ranging from 1 to 3. This demonstrates a poor ability to
identify words with inverted syllables and problems ordering the syllables in a word. According to
Moser et al. (2009), the ability to order the syllables in a word is a fundamental process in language
production and comprehension.
students (S-3 and S-7) obtained a 4. This indicates a good mastery of syllable identification. This score
is normal and important for a child to read and write correctly. According to Rasinski (2003), syllable
identification helps children decode words well. In the final syllable identification category, one
participant (S-5) scored correctly. Vazeux et al. (2020) Syllables play an important role in the reading
process, as readers activate phonological syllables. Recognizing initial, medial, and final syllables is
important for successful reading and writing. In the final syllable omission category, two participants
(S-2 and S-3) scored adequately. This represents a strength in reading. Troia (2010) states that
phonological manipulations, such as final syllable omission, are important for success in reading and
writing.
The students also showed deficiencies in each part of the test, such as syllable segmentation,
first syllable identification, last syllable identification, initial syllable omission, final syllable omission,
syllable reversal, initial phoneme identification, final phoneme identification, initial phoneme omission,
and phoneme synthesis. The students had deficiencies in this part because they were not pre-tested for
dyslexia. In syllable segmentation, three participants (S-4, S-5, and S-7) scored between 0 and 3.
Syllable segmentation is the ability to separate syllables. Anthony and Lonigan (2004) reported that a
deficiency in syllable segmentation made word decoding difficult and impaired spelling and reading
development. In initial syllable identification, four participants (S-1, S-2, S-4, S-5, and S-6) scored low.
This impairs their reading skills. Bishop and Snowling (2004) stated that poor syllable identification
skills are often due to phonological processing.
This makes it difficult to blend and segment sounds. The lack of proper sound blending leads
to reading difficulties. In the final syllable identification, six participants (S-1, S-2, S-3, S-4, S-6, S-7)
scored very low. This can make word segmentation difficult. Torgesen (2000) observed that children
are unable to decode unfamiliar words because they do not recognize the first syllable. This leads to
slower development of reading and writing.
In the omission of the initial syllable, all participants obtained a very low score, which hinders
their success in reading and writing. Lane and Pullen (2011) Children with problems deleting initial
syllables tend to have difficulties manipulating and segmenting the sounds in words, which makes their
reading and writing difficult. In the omission of the final syllable. 5 participants (S-1, S-4, S-5, S.6, S7)
obtained a low score.
The difficulty in identifying the last syllable affects the child's pronunciation, reading and
writing. Preston & Edwards (2010) Having a lower phonological awareness is associated with having
a smaller receptive vocabulary and with errors in reading and writing.In syllable inversion, all
participants showed a low level, with a score ranging from 1 to 3. This demonstrates a poor ability to
identify words with inverted syllables and problems ordering the syllables in a word. According to
Moser et al. (2009), the ability to order the syllables in a word is a fundamental process in language
production and comprehension.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4475
Similarly, in initial phoneme identification, all the participants showed a score between 1 and
3. It shows the poor ability to identify the initial sound of a word. Molis et al. (2015) mention that it is
very important to have the ability to identify the initial phoneme of words since if this skill is affected,
problems develop in understanding oral language. Final phoneme identification is another category in
which all participants showed poor proficiency, scoring between 1 and 3. Goswami (2015) suggests
that the inability to identify the final phoneme is a very common characteristic in people with dyslexia,
as it presents difficulties in recognizing and manipulating sound structures.
Another category that the children tested found difficult was initial phoneme omission. In this
case, participants scored between 0 and 3. Kilpatrick (2015) suggests that initial phoneme omission is
often difficult for children with dyslexia, as it requires a great skill in segmenting and deleting
phonemes.
Finally, in the phonemic synthesis category, four students (S-1, S-2, S-4, S-7) scored poorly,
scoring between 1 and 3. This demonstrates difficulty processing the sounds in a word. According to
Goswami (2018), the ability to identify the sounds in a word depends on the speed and efficiency of a
child's auditory processing. Children with dyslexia often have deficiencies in sound processing, which
limits their ability to correctly follow the sequence of sounds and identify the word.
Finally, in the phonemic synthesis category, three students (S-3, S-5, S-6) scored adequately,
between 4 and 5 points, indicating an optimal ability to identify the sounds in a word. Kilpatrick (2015)
suggests that phonemic synthesis is a fundamental skill in early reading. It allows children to combine
individual sounds to form whole words. This ability facilitates the decoding of unfamiliar words and is
a strong indicator of good reading skills.
To answer the second question, what is the percentage of children between the ages of 4 and 7
with dyslexia, the total number of students in the population was taken into account, along with the
students with the lowest scores, to obtain a percentage of 21.88%, which represents the students who
obtained a percentile of 10, which shows that they have characteristics of dyslexia.
CONCLUSIONS
Dyslexia is a learning disability that can affect people of different ages and their abilities to read
and write. The results showed that 7 young learners from a sample of 32 have characteristics of dyslexia.
They obtained scores on the 10th percentile. It indicates that children presented more symptoms of
dyslexia in phonemic awareness than syllabic awareness. The findings showed some strengths in
syllable segmentation, first syllable identification, final syllable identification, and final syllable
omission. On the other hand, there were weaknesses in phoneme identification, final phoneme
identification, initial phoneme omission, and phoneme synthesis. It means that teachers need to
recognize the characteristics of dyslexic students to focus on enhancing syllabic awareness and
phonemic awareness using pedagogical strategies and activities to avoid difficulty in reading and
writing, and to be slow learners. Therefore, it is suggested that teachers focus on these learning
Similarly, in initial phoneme identification, all the participants showed a score between 1 and
3. It shows the poor ability to identify the initial sound of a word. Molis et al. (2015) mention that it is
very important to have the ability to identify the initial phoneme of words since if this skill is affected,
problems develop in understanding oral language. Final phoneme identification is another category in
which all participants showed poor proficiency, scoring between 1 and 3. Goswami (2015) suggests
that the inability to identify the final phoneme is a very common characteristic in people with dyslexia,
as it presents difficulties in recognizing and manipulating sound structures.
Another category that the children tested found difficult was initial phoneme omission. In this
case, participants scored between 0 and 3. Kilpatrick (2015) suggests that initial phoneme omission is
often difficult for children with dyslexia, as it requires a great skill in segmenting and deleting
phonemes.
Finally, in the phonemic synthesis category, four students (S-1, S-2, S-4, S-7) scored poorly,
scoring between 1 and 3. This demonstrates difficulty processing the sounds in a word. According to
Goswami (2018), the ability to identify the sounds in a word depends on the speed and efficiency of a
child's auditory processing. Children with dyslexia often have deficiencies in sound processing, which
limits their ability to correctly follow the sequence of sounds and identify the word.
Finally, in the phonemic synthesis category, three students (S-3, S-5, S-6) scored adequately,
between 4 and 5 points, indicating an optimal ability to identify the sounds in a word. Kilpatrick (2015)
suggests that phonemic synthesis is a fundamental skill in early reading. It allows children to combine
individual sounds to form whole words. This ability facilitates the decoding of unfamiliar words and is
a strong indicator of good reading skills.
To answer the second question, what is the percentage of children between the ages of 4 and 7
with dyslexia, the total number of students in the population was taken into account, along with the
students with the lowest scores, to obtain a percentage of 21.88%, which represents the students who
obtained a percentile of 10, which shows that they have characteristics of dyslexia.
CONCLUSIONS
Dyslexia is a learning disability that can affect people of different ages and their abilities to read
and write. The results showed that 7 young learners from a sample of 32 have characteristics of dyslexia.
They obtained scores on the 10th percentile. It indicates that children presented more symptoms of
dyslexia in phonemic awareness than syllabic awareness. The findings showed some strengths in
syllable segmentation, first syllable identification, final syllable identification, and final syllable
omission. On the other hand, there were weaknesses in phoneme identification, final phoneme
identification, initial phoneme omission, and phoneme synthesis. It means that teachers need to
recognize the characteristics of dyslexic students to focus on enhancing syllabic awareness and
phonemic awareness using pedagogical strategies and activities to avoid difficulty in reading and
writing, and to be slow learners. Therefore, it is suggested that teachers focus on these learning
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4476
disabilities to create activities that lead to optimal learning and improve reading and writing skills. For
future research, it is recommended that teachers implement the PECFO test in schools to determine the
number of students with dyslexia and implement activities that allow them to strengthen their reading
and writing skills.
disabilities to create activities that lead to optimal learning and improve reading and writing skills. For
future research, it is recommended that teachers implement the PECFO test in schools to determine the
number of students with dyslexia and implement activities that allow them to strengthen their reading
and writing skills.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4477
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Flores Rojas, M. S. (2022). English Teaching language to children with dyslexia: an analysis based on
the curricular adaptations guide (Bachelor's thesis, Riobamba).
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Goswami, U. (2015). Sensory theories of developmental dyslexia: Three challenges for research. Nature
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Goswami, U. (2018). A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 22(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.10.001
Guevara-Enríquez, G. G. (2017). The Challenge of Facing Dyslexic Students through Curricular
Adaptations.
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Allam, H. A., Abdelraouf, E., Fathy, M., & Nashaat, N. H. (2015). Neurocognitive and linguistic deficits
in developmental dyslexia. Journal of innovations in pharmaceutical and clinical sciences,
2(4), 653-659.
Andresen, A., & Monsrud, M.-B. (2021). Assessment of Dyslexia – Why, When, and with What?
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 66(6), 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2021.1958373
Anthony, J. L., & Lonigan, C. J. (2004). The nature of phonological awareness: Converging evidence
from four studies of preschool and early grade school children.
Bishop, D. V. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2004). Developmental dyslexia and specific language
impairment: Same or different? Psychological Bulletin, 130(6), 858–886.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.858
Carrillo et al., (2011) Evaluación de la dislexia en la escuela primaria: Prevalencia en español.
https://scielo.isciii.es/pdf/ep/v4n2/original4.pdf
Cuetos, F., Suárez-Coalla, P., Molina, M. I., & Llenderrozas, M. C. (2015). Test para la detección
temprana de las dificultades en el aprendizaje de la lectura y escritura. Pediatría Atención
Primaria, 17(66), e99-e107.
Cuetos et al., (2017) Validación del test para la detección temprana de las dificultades en el aprendizaje
de la lectura y escritura.
https://www.redalyc.org/journal/3666/366654790006/366654790006.pdf
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage publications.
D'Mello, A. M., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience of dyslexia. Language, speech, and
hearing services in schools, 49(4), 798-809.
Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of reading,
9(2), 167-188.
Flores Rojas, M. S. (2022). English Teaching language to children with dyslexia: an analysis based on
the curricular adaptations guide (Bachelor's thesis, Riobamba).
Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.43
Goswami, U. (2015). Sensory theories of developmental dyslexia: Three challenges for research. Nature
Reviews Neuroscience, 16(1), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3836
Goswami, U. (2018). A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 22(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.10.001
Guevara-Enríquez, G. G. (2017). The Challenge of Facing Dyslexic Students through Curricular
Adaptations.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4478
Karimupfumbi, F., & Dwarika, V. M. (2022). Teachers’ experiences of using the screening,
identification, assessment and support strategy to support learners who present with
characteristics of dyslexia. South African journal of childhood education, 12(1), 1107.
Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties.
Wiley.
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conciencia fonológica) al contexto ecuatoriano (Bachelor 's thesis, Quito: Universidad
Tecnológica Indoamérica).
Marshall, J. C., & Newcombe, F. (1973). Patterns of paralexia: A psycholinguistic approach. Journal of
psycholinguistic research, 2, 175-199. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067101
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Speech,
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Preston, J., & Edwards, M. L. (2010). Phonological awareness and types of sound errors in preschoolers
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Iqra': Kajian Ilmu Pendidikan, 5(2), 30-42.
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Fluency, and Comprehension. Scholastic.
Siegmund, L. A., & Siedlecki, S. L. (2021). Ensuring data fidelity in quantitative research. Clinical
Nurse Specialist, 35(6), 284-287.
Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for
Reading Problems at Any Level. Knopf.
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p.
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lingering problem of treatment resisters. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 15(1),
55–64.
Karimupfumbi, F., & Dwarika, V. M. (2022). Teachers’ experiences of using the screening,
identification, assessment and support strategy to support learners who present with
characteristics of dyslexia. South African journal of childhood education, 12(1), 1107.
Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties.
Wiley.
Kuerten et al., (2020) Dislexia del desarrollo: una revisión condensada de la literatura
https://scite.ai/reports/developmental-dyslexia-a-condensed-review-ajQnXkv
Manosalvas, M., & Mishell, K. (2021). Adaptación lingüística del test pecfo (prueba de evaluación de
conciencia fonológica) al contexto ecuatoriano (Bachelor 's thesis, Quito: Universidad
Tecnológica Indoamérica).
Marshall, J. C., & Newcombe, F. (1973). Patterns of paralexia: A psycholinguistic approach. Journal of
psycholinguistic research, 2, 175-199. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067101
Molis, M. R., Kampel, S. D., McMillan, G. P., Gallun, F. J., Dann, S. M., & Konrad-Martin, D. (2015).
Effects of hearing and aging on sentence-level time-gated word recognition. Journal of
Speech,
Moser, D., Baker, J. M., Sanchez, C. E., Rorden, C., & Fridriksson, J. (2009). Temporal order
processing of syllables in the left parietal lobe. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(40), 12568-12573.
Preston, J., & Edwards, M. L. (2010). Phonological awareness and types of sound errors in preschoolers
with speech sound disorders.
Pullen, P. C., Lane, H. B., Ashworth, K. E., & Lovelace, S. P. (2011). Learning disabilities. In
Handbook of special education (pp. 195-205). Routledge.
Putra, P., Liriwati, F. Y., Tahrim, T., Syafrudin, S., Suhono, S., & Aslan, A. (2020). The students
learning from home experiences during Covid-19 school closures policy in Indonesia. Jurnal
Iqra': Kajian Ilmu Pendidikan, 5(2), 30-42.
Rasinski, T. V. (2003). The Fluent Reader: Oral Reading Strategies for Building Word Recognition,
Fluency, and Comprehension. Scholastic.
Siegmund, L. A., & Siedlecki, S. L. (2021). Ensuring data fidelity in quantitative research. Clinical
Nurse Specialist, 35(6), 284-287.
Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for
Reading Problems at Any Level. Knopf.
Stein, J. (2014). Dyslexia: the role of vision and visual attention. Current developmental disorders
reports, 1, 267-280. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6
Tlustošová, P. (2006). Teaching English to children with specific learning difficulties. Brno, 2006. 42
p.
Torgesen, J. K. (2000). Individual differences in response to early interventions in reading: The
lingering problem of treatment resisters. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 15(1),
55–64.
Vol. 12/ Núm. 2 2025 pág. 4479
Troia, G. A. (2010). Phonological awareness intervention research: A critical review of the experimental
methodology. Reading Psychology, 31(3), 291–335.
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methodology. Reading Psychology, 31(3), 291–335.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710902755997
Varela, V y Barbieri, Z. (2013). PECFO Prueba de Evaluación de Conciencia Fonológica.
Vazeux, M., Doignon-Camus, N., Bosse, M. L., Mahé, G., Guo, T., & Zagar, D. (2020). Syllable-first
rather than letter-first to improve phonemic awareness. Scientific reports, 10(1), 22130.
Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading
across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3